MINEX Forum

Tag: European Union

  • EU Moves to Forge Critical Minerals Partnership with US to Counter China’s Dominance

    EU Moves to Forge Critical Minerals Partnership with US to Counter China’s Dominance

    The European Union is preparing to propose a formal critical minerals partnership with the United States, seeking to align with the Trump administration’s renewed push to secure global supply chains and reduce reliance on China.

    According to sources familiar with the discussions, Brussels is ready to sign a memorandum of understanding with Washington that would launch work on a “Strategic Partnership Roadmap,” with a draft framework expected within three months. Negotiators on both sides are aiming to conclude initial talks within 30 days, with a joint statement by the European Commission and the US expected this week.

    The proposed partnership is designed to coordinate sourcing, pricing and market safeguards for critical minerals that underpin modern technologies ranging from clean energy systems to defence equipment. Both the EU and the US remain heavily dependent on Chinese production and processing, a concentration that has given Beijing significant leverage over global supply chains.

    Under the proposal, the EU and US would explore joint mining and processing projects, develop secure transatlantic supply chains, and consider price-support mechanisms to protect Western producers from cheaper imports. The draft also highlights tools to prevent market manipulation and manage oversupply, including coordinated stockpiling and shared response mechanisms in the event of disruptions.

    Notably, EU officials insist the partnership explicitly include respect for territorial integrity. This provision follows recent strains in transatlantic relations after Donald Trump publicly floated the idea of acquiring Greenland, an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark and part of the EU.

    The initiative coincides with a US-led ministerial meeting this week, bringing together foreign ministers and senior officials from allied countries to advance agreements aimed at cutting dependence on Chinese critical minerals. A draft statement seen by Bloomberg indicates the EU, the US and partners are considering a broader plurilateral trade initiative involving like-minded nations.

    Potential measures under discussion include coordinated trade policies such as standards-based markets, price-gap subsidies, border-adjusted price floors and long-term offtake agreements. While the text remains subject to change, it reflects Washington’s interest in shielding domestic producers from undercutting by Chinese exports.

    China’s role looms large in the background. Beijing dominates both mining and refining of many critical minerals, and its export restrictions on rare earths last year elevated the issue to the top of Washington’s strategic agenda. Although some restrictions were temporarily eased following talks between Trump and Chinese leader Xi Jinping, US officials remain focused on accelerating diversification.

    In parallel, the Trump administration has placed renewed emphasis on stockpiling. Earlier this week, the US announced a $12 billion critical minerals reserve aimed at protecting manufacturers from sudden supply shocks, a move closely aligned with elements of the EU proposal.

    The European Commission has described the talks as essential to reducing dependence on any single supplier, though officials privately caution that reaching a comprehensive agreement on complex pricing and trade mechanisms within weeks will be challenging. Still, the EU’s willingness to table a detailed proposal signals momentum toward closer transatlantic coordination on one of the most strategically sensitive areas of the global economy.

  • Heavy Industry Issues “Code Red” for Europe: Urgent Call to Halt 2026 Carbon Cost Hikes

    Heavy Industry Issues “Code Red” for Europe: Urgent Call to Halt 2026 Carbon Cost Hikes

    BRUSSELS – In a major intervention aimed at the highest levels of EU governance, Euromines and a coalition of Europe’s energy-intensive industries (EIIs) have issued a stark warning: without immediate policy intervention, the continent faces “irreversible deindustrialisation.”

    The joint statement, released on 2 February 2026, comes at a critical juncture for European manufacturing. Highlighting a “deteriorating fast” situation, the industry group revealed that production levels in some sectors plummeted by as much as 40% in 2025.

    Key Alarms: A Sector in Retreat

    The coalition, representing a turnover of €1.5 trillion and 6.6 million employees, argues that the backbone of Europe’s strategic autonomy—including steel, cement, chemicals, and mining—is crumbling under three main pressures:

    • Sky-High Energy: Costs remain twice as high as pre-crisis levels.

    • Crushing Carbon Prices: CO2 prices are now roughly four times higher than in 2020, far outpacing international competitors.

    • Global Trade Headwinds: Unfair trade practices, exacerbated by aggressive US tariffs and state-induced global overcapacities, have left European firms unable to compete.

    “In 2025 alone, an estimated 200,000 jobs were lost in these sectors. This is a critical situation at a time when self-sufficiency is becoming increasingly important,” the statement warns.

    The “Four Pillars” of Survival

    As EU leaders prepare for an informal summit on competitiveness on 12 February, the industry is demanding a “Clean Industrial Deal” with four immediate priorities:

    1. Freeze Carbon Cost Hikes: A total pause on any planned increases in carbon costs for 2026. The group warns that upcoming reductions in “free allocations” could slash support by up to 34%, a move they label “detrimental.”

    2. Target €50/MWh Energy: Aligning with the landmark Draghi Report, industries are calling for all levers to be pulled to bring industrial electricity costs down to €50/MWh to make electrification viable.

    3. Aggressive Trade Defense: Rapid deployment of Trade Defence Instruments (TDIs) to counter “economic coercion” and non-EU imports produced under lower environmental standards.

    4. “Proudly Made in Europe” Demand: New rules in public procurement to prioritise European-made products, ensuring that the EU’s high environmental and social standards are reflected in market demand.

    Looking Ahead

    The timing of this statement is no coincidence. It serves as a direct “input” for the 12 February retreat at Alden Biesen Castle, where European Council President António Costa has invited former Italian PMs Mario Draghi and Enrico Letta to discuss a radical overhaul of the Single Market.

    With carbon prices projected by some analysts to reach €100/t in early 2026, the industry’s message is clear: Europe cannot afford to pay for tomorrow’s climate goals by bankrupting today’s industrial base.

  • Allied Nations to Meet in Washington on Critical Minerals Strategy as De-Risking from China Accelerates

    Allied Nations to Meet in Washington on Critical Minerals Strategy as De-Risking from China Accelerates

    Ministers from the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Japan, Australia and New Zealand will gather in Washington this week to discuss the creation of a closer strategic alliance on critical minerals, as governments intensify efforts to reduce dependence on China-dominated supply chains.

    The meeting, convened by United States Department of State and led by Secretary of State Marco Rubio, will also include around 20 countries such as G7 members, India, South Korea, Mexico and potentially Argentina. It marks the second such summit in less than a month and is widely seen as part of a broader attempt to repair strained transatlantic relations and coordinate non-China sourcing strategies for minerals essential to energy transition, defence and advanced manufacturing.

    Australia underscored the urgency of the talks last week by announcing plans to establish a A$1.2 billion strategic reserve of critical minerals considered vulnerable to supply disruption from China. Canberra’s move follows Beijing’s decision last April to restrict rare earth exports in response to trade measures introduced under US President Donald Trump.

    A key issue on the Washington agenda will be whether the United States should guarantee minimum prices for critical minerals and rare earths to support investment in alternative supply chains. Reports this week that Washington may have ruled out such guarantees triggered a sell-off in Australian mining stocks, highlighting the sensitivity of the sector to policy signals. Australia has positioned itself as a major alternative supplier to China and plans to stockpile minerals such as antimony and gallium regardless of US pricing decisions.

    “Strengthening critical mineral supply chains with international partners is vital for the US economy, national security, technological leadership, and a resilient energy future,” the State Department said ahead of the summit.

    The European Union is expected to use the meeting to push for progress on broader trade irritants, including US tariffs on steel derivatives. EU officials argue that new levies on products containing steel, from bicycles to wind turbines, undermine trust following a tariff deal agreed last year. Brussels hopes the talks could pave the way for a joint statement that would signal a shift toward closer coordination with Washington on de-risking from China rather than recurring trade disputes.

    The European Commission has repeatedly warned that Europe remains highly exposed to Chinese supply chains, particularly for rare earth permanent magnets. According to Commission officials, the EU consumes around 20,000 tonnes of permanent magnets annually, with roughly 17,000–18,000 tonnes sourced from China and only about 1,000 tonnes produced domestically.

    Japan, which has long maintained strategic mineral stockpiles to guard against supply disruptions, is often cited by policymakers as a model for resilience. European and UK officials say closer alignment with partners such as Japan and Australia will be essential if Western economies are to secure stable access to minerals critical for everything from smartphones and electric vehicles to fighter jets and renewable energy systems.

  • EU Unlikely to Cut Critical Minerals Dependence on China by 2030, Auditors Warn

    EU Unlikely to Cut Critical Minerals Dependence on China by 2030, Auditors Warn

    The European Union is unlikely to diversify its supply of critical raw materials in time to meet its climate and industrial targets, leaving the bloc heavily dependent on China well into the next decade, according to a new report by the European Court of Auditors (ECA).

    Despite the signing of 14 major trade agreements and sustained diversification efforts led by the European Commission, EU auditors concluded that the EU27 is “unlikely to succeed in time” in securing alternative sources of minerals essential for clean technologies such as electric vehicle batteries, wind turbines and solar panels.

    China remains the dominant supplier. The ECA report shows that the EU sources 97% of its magnesium imports from China, alongside large shares of gallium (71%), germanium (45%), baryte (44%), arsenic (39%), graphite (40%) and tungsten (31%). Magnesium is a key input for hydrogen electrolysers, while gallium and germanium are vital for semiconductors and renewable technologies.

    “Without critical raw materials, there will be no energy transition, no competitiveness, and no strategic autonomy,” said Keit Pentus-Rosimannus, warning that the EU is “dangerously dependent” on a small group of external suppliers.

    While countries such as Chile (lithium) and Turkey (boron) are also important partners, China remains unrivalled in both mining output and refining capacity. According to EU data, China controls around 60% of global production of critical raw materials and about 90% of global refining capacity. The European Parliament estimates that the EU depends on China for roughly 90% of its raw materials and 98% of rare-earth magnets.

    The pending Mercosur trade agreement, covering Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay, could help diversify supply once approved by the European Parliament. EU lawmakers are also debating whether to revive a stalled trade and minerals agreement with the United States.

    Speaking in December, EU Executive Vice President Stéphane Séjourné acknowledged the bloc’s raw material dependence and said dialogue with China “remains essential,” even as Brussels rolls out new monitoring measures and prepares to launch a European raw materials centre to coordinate supply, stockpiling and market oversight.

    Auditors noted that Beijing has increasingly used its dominance as geopolitical leverage. Export restrictions on rare earths in recent years, including in 2025, disrupted EU industries. Data from the European Chamber of Commerce in China shows that Chinese authorities approved only 19 out of 141 licence applications submitted by European companies in mid-2025.

    The report also questions whether the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), adopted in 2024, can realistically meet its targets. The law sets non-binding goals for 2030, including 10% domestic extraction, 40% local processing and 25% recycling, while limiting reliance on any single non-EU supplier to 65%. Auditors say these targets are difficult to achieve given China’s grip on processing for materials such as magnesium, gallium and all rare earth elements.

    The ECA highlights recycling as an underused lever. Ten critical materials needed for the energy transition are not recycled at all in the EU, and existing targets do little to incentivise recycling of specific materials. The auditors recommend binding recycling targets, improved waste collection rules and easier movement of critical-material waste within the bloc to improve the commercial viability of recycling.

    “China’s vertical integration, scale and low costs give it a structural advantage,” Pentus-Rosimannus said, adding that without stronger action on recycling, partnerships and strategic projects, the EU risks falling short of its green and industrial ambitions.

  • Poland Urges Brussels to Act Over Ukraine’s Steel Scrap Export Ban

    Poland Urges Brussels to Act Over Ukraine’s Steel Scrap Export Ban

    Poland has asked the European Commission to intervene after Ukraine introduced measures that effectively halt exports of steel scrap to the European Union, a move Warsaw warns could undermine the competitiveness of its steel industry.

    The dispute highlights growing trade frictions between the two close partners at a time when the EU continues to provide political, financial and military support to Ukraine following Russia’s full-scale invasion. While Poland remains one of Kyiv’s strongest allies, tensions have mounted over trade flows, including agricultural products, transit corridors and now scrap metal.

    From January 1, Ukraine set export quotas for ferrous scrap at zero, effectively blocking shipments of a key input for electric arc furnaces. Poland’s Ministry of Development and Technology said the restrictions are already disrupting supply chains and risk driving up costs for domestic steelmakers.

    Roughly half of Poland’s steel output is produced using electric arc furnaces, which rely heavily on scrap as their primary raw material. In recent years, Poland has been the main destination for Ukrainian scrap exports. According to the ministry, a prolonged shortage could lead to higher production costs, weaker competitiveness and a real risk of output cuts and job losses in the sector.

    Kyiv has defended the measure as a wartime necessity, arguing that limiting exports helps support Ukraine’s own steel industry. Polish industry representatives counter that the policy lowers input costs for Ukrainian producers while increasing prices for manufacturers in the EU.

    Warsaw says it attempted to avert the restrictions before they took effect. On December 18, 2025, the Polish ministry sent a formal letter to Ukraine’s deputy economy minister urging the government to reconsider plans that would block scrap exports. With no response and the zero quotas now in force, Poland escalated the issue to Brussels.

    Following the Ukrainian government’s decision, the ministry formally requested urgent intervention from the European Commission, describing the quotas as a de facto export ban. Polish officials added that the matter will also be raised during upcoming bilateral talks with Ukrainian counterparts.

  • EU’s Push for Critical Minerals Raises Concerns Over Securitization and Democratic Backsliding

    EU’s Push for Critical Minerals Raises Concerns Over Securitization and Democratic Backsliding

    The European Union’s drive to secure access to critical raw materials is increasingly being framed as a matter of security, a shift that critics warn could undermine environmental protections, democratic processes, and the rights of local communities.

    Despite accounting for around 5% of the global population, the European Union consumes close to 20% of the world’s mineral resources, a gap that is widening as renewable energy, electric vehicles, digital technologies, and defence needs expand. This imbalance, analysts argue, has encouraged what they describe as a new form of “green imperialism,” aimed at maintaining mineral flows from the Global South and Europe’s periphery to major industrial centres.

    Over the past two decades, access to minerals has shifted from a trade and industrial policy issue to one increasingly treated as an existential security concern. The process accelerated after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and culminated in the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Regulation, adopted in 2024. The regulation designates “Strategic Projects” that benefit from faster permitting, privileged access to funding, and exemptions from certain environmental safeguards, with the stated goal of strengthening Europe’s strategic autonomy.

    Supporters argue the approach is necessary as demand for minerals such as copper, lithium, and rare earth elements is projected to multiply several times by 2030, while global production remains concentrated in a handful of countries. Critics counter that securitization has allowed industrial and political actors to push through projects by weakening environmental oversight, accelerating approvals, and marginalizing opposition.

    Concerns have grown following the European Commission’s designation of dozens of strategic projects through processes that critics describe as opaque and lacking public participation. Civil society organisations report that requests for environmental information have been denied on national security grounds, marking an unprecedented application of defence-related exemptions in environmental governance. In several member states, officials have also portrayed opposition from local communities and environmental groups as threats to public security or economic stability.

    Observers warn that this narrative risks fostering democratic erosion by restricting access to information, delegitimizing environmental activism, and prioritizing industrial interests over public participation. They argue that mining-related conflicts long associated with the “resource curse” in developing countries, such as social polarization, corruption, and weakened rule of law, are now emerging within Europe itself.

    While EU institutions maintain that strategic mineral development is essential for the green transition, defence, and industrial resilience, critics say the current approach reflects a structural contradiction. Efforts to accelerate extraction and processing are colliding with the EU’s own legal commitments to environmental protection, human rights, and transparency.

    As Europe moves to expand domestic mining and overseas supply chains, the outcome of this securitized approach to raw materials policy may determine whether the EU can reconcile strategic autonomy with its democratic and environmental foundations.

  • EU Backs Sweden’s Largest Rare Earth Project but Faces Legal Barriers of Its Own Making

    EU Backs Sweden’s Largest Rare Earth Project but Faces Legal Barriers of Its Own Making

    The European Union is channelling significant financial support into LKAB’s Per Geijer rare earth project in northern Sweden as part of its strategy to reduce dependence on China for critical raw materials. However, the same EU legal framework designed to protect the environment and Indigenous rights is emerging as a major obstacle to the project’s progress.

    The Per Geijer deposit near Kiruna has been granted Strategic Project status under the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA), making it eligible for EU-backed loans, guarantees and other de-risking instruments. The designation reflects the project’s importance to Europe’s green transition, defence capabilities and electric vehicle supply chains. Under the CRMA, the EU aims to mine at least 10% of its strategic raw materials domestically and process 40% within the bloc by 2030.

    To support these targets, Brussels is deploying financing through tools such as InvestEU, the Innovation Fund and European Investment Bank lending, with nearly €3 billion earmarked for mining, processing and recycling projects. Northern Sweden has been identified as a priority region, and Per Geijer is seen as a flagship initiative.

    Despite this political and financial backing, the project remains subject to Sweden’s Environmental Code and EU environmental legislation, including the Environmental Impact Assessment Directive and the Habitats and Birds Directives. These rules require extensive assessments of impacts on biodiversity, water resources, emissions and climate, and allow for legal appeals that can delay projects for years. Strategic status does not provide exemptions from these requirements.

    Additional complexity arises from Indigenous rights considerations. The Per Geijer deposit overlaps with traditional reindeer-herding land used by the Sami people, triggering legal obligations under Swedish law, EU law and international human rights conventions. Requirements for meaningful consultation and protection of minority rights sit uneasily alongside the CRMA’s push for faster permitting.

    Per Geijer is part of a broader LKAB value chain that includes rare earth extraction at Malmberget and processing facilities in Luleå, all of which have also received Strategic Project status. However, the European Commission retains the right to withdraw this status if sustainability criteria are not met or if projects fail to deliver.

    The case highlights a structural tension within EU policy. While Brussels is accelerating funding and political support to secure raw material autonomy, its environmental and rights-based legal framework gives courts and civil society strong tools to slow or block projects. The outcome in Kiruna is increasingly seen as a test of whether the EU can reconcile its industrial ambitions with the legal principles at the core of the Green Deal.

  • Sibanye-Stillwater completes assessment of Keliber lithium project, confirms staged start-up plan

    Sibanye-Stillwater completes assessment of Keliber lithium project, confirms staged start-up plan

    Sibanye-Stillwater has completed a multidisciplinary assessment of its Keliber lithium project in Finland, confirming the project’s technical readiness and outlining a staged approach to commissioning amid current market conditions.

    The Keliber project is regarded as the European Union’s most advanced fully integrated lithium development, with planned production of around 15,000 tonnes per year of battery-grade lithium hydroxide monohydrate over a mine life exceeding 18 years. It is also one of the few lithium hydroxide refineries outside China and has been designated a strategic project under the EU’s Critical Raw Materials Act, reflecting its importance to the bloc’s battery supply chain.

    According to Sibanye-Stillwater, construction of the fully integrated mine, concentrator and refinery remains on track, with completion of the construction phase and cold commissioning expected in the first quarter of 2026. The total capital investment required to complete construction is estimated at approximately €783 million.

    Following the assessment, Sibanye-Stillwater and its strategic partner, Finnish Minerals Group, have agreed that a staged start-up represents the most prudent path forward. Under this approach, initial commissioning will focus on achieving operational readiness at the mining and concentrating stages before determining the timing for commissioning the refinery.

    The company said this phased strategy is intended to reduce ramp-up risks while preserving financial flexibility, allowing certain capital expenditures and refining ramp-up costs to be deferred depending on lithium market conditions. Finnish Minerals Group is preparing to contribute additional funding on a pro rata basis in line with its 20% equity stake to support the project through the ramp-up period.

    Sibanye-Stillwater CEO Richard Stewart said the agreed approach balances technical readiness with market realities, ensuring the project advances in a responsible and commercially disciplined manner while remaining positioned to supply locally produced lithium into the EU battery value chain.

  • European Commission seeks industry backing for ‘Made in Europe’ push ahead of Industrial Accelerator Act

    The European Commission is urging business leaders to support and sign a French-led initiative aimed at increasing the share of industrial production based in Europe, as the EU prepares to unveil its Industrial Accelerator Act (IAA).

    According to a letter seen by Euronews, the Commission is calling on representatives from energy-intensive sectors such as steel and aluminium to back a stronger “Made in Europe” component in forthcoming legislation. The move is intended to revive Europe’s struggling industrial base amid mounting competition from China and the United States.

    The appeal comes days before the planned presentation of the Industrial Accelerator Act, which seeks to accelerate the decarbonisation of heavy industry while preserving the competitiveness of European production. The initiative builds on earlier EU legislation adopted in 2024 that prioritised domestic clean-technology manufacturing as part of the bloc’s goal to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.

    In the letter, European Commission Executive Vice-President Stéphane Séjourné warned that Europe faces a stark choice as global trade becomes increasingly shaped by tariffs, subsidies and export restrictions. Without an ambitious and pragmatic industrial policy, he argued, the EU risks a gradual erosion of its industrial capacity, technological know-how and economic sovereignty.

    Supporters say the IAA could significantly strengthen European competitiveness at a time when traditional sectors such as cement and steel, as well as emerging net-zero technologies, are grappling with weak demand and aggressive international competition. However, critics caution that the proposal could undermine competition within the EU’s single market, particularly disadvantaging member states with less developed industrial frameworks compared with countries like France and Germany.

    Several member states, including Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Malta, Portugal, Sweden and Slovakia, warned in December that the planned law could distort competition and affect prices, quality and business conditions across the bloc.

    Key elements of the proposal, including quotas for European-made products, financing mechanisms and state-aid rules, remain under discussion. EU officials have floated potential targets requiring 60% to 80% of certain products to be produced in Europe, with provisions to count output from non-European firms operating within the EU as “Made in Europe”.

    The Commission is also exploring ways to align supply and demand by creating so-called “lead markets” for low-carbon industrial products such as green steel and hydrogen, supported by demand-side measures. In parallel, state-aid rules may be loosened, potentially allowing member states to fund decarbonisation projects without prior notification to the Commission.

    European industry leaders have reacted positively, citing a record €350 billion trade deficit with China in 2025. In a separate letter, business representatives described the IAA as an act of economic independence, echoing warnings from former European Central Bank president Mario Draghi that Europe risks long-term decline if it fails to close the gap with global competitors.

    The Industrial Accelerator Act, initially delayed in December, is currently scheduled for presentation on 29 January, although further postponements remain possible.

  • EU steps up critical minerals policy but risks falling behind the US and China

    EU steps up critical minerals policy but risks falling behind the US and China

    The European Union has intensified efforts to strengthen critical mineral supply chains that underpin the energy transition, but analysts warn that Europe is moving more slowly and offering weaker support than the United States, leaving it exposed to China’s dominant position in global markets.

    China already controls much of the global supply of solar power components and dominates processing capacity for key battery and clean energy materials, including lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, graphite, rare earths and permanent magnets. According to Eurostat, 95% of EU rare earth imports in 2024 came from just three countries: China, Malaysia and Russia. Data from Wood Mackenzie shows China accounts for 32% of global lithium production and controls a further 18% through overseas projects, while holding 81% of global critical minerals processing capacity.

    This concentration creates significant risks for European clean energy developers, as over-reliance on a small group of suppliers increases exposure to licensing delays, export controls and sudden supply disruptions. Industry experts note that despite growing awareness among policymakers, Europe’s response remains fragmented and underpowered.

    To accelerate investment, the EU adopted the ResourceEU action plan in December 2025. Backed by €3 billion from the Critical Raw Materials Act, the plan aims to expand domestic extraction and refining, promote recycling, reduce dependence on dominant suppliers, speed up permitting and restrict scrap exports. The EU has set targets to extract 10% of its critical minerals needs domestically, host 40% of processing capacity within the bloc and reach a 15% recycling rate by 2030.

    However, analysts say the funding and policy tools fall short of a fully fledged industrial strategy. Investment momentum has weakened amid low commodity prices, and existing regulations have not yet made most European projects sufficiently bankable. Several high-profile projects, including the Chvaletice manganese project in the Czech Republic, have stalled due to permitting delays and grid access issues, despite being labelled strategic.

    By contrast, the United States has adopted a more aggressive, security-driven approach. Through measures such as the Inflation Reduction Act, the One Big Beautiful Bill and the use of the Defense Production Act, Washington offers tax credits, grants, loans, price guarantees and offtake support to accelerate mine-to-battery and mine-to-magnet supply chains. As a result, the US is advancing diversification faster than Europe.

    While projects such as LKAB’s rare earth and phosphorus processing plant in Sweden signal progress, experts caution that Europe’s public tools for de-risking investments remain limited compared with those of the US and China. Without stronger financial instruments, streamlined permitting and a greater focus on processing and recycling, Europe risks remaining vulnerable in the global race for critical minerals.